General
1. The North and South Kashmir Himalayas, falling within the State of Jammu and Kashmir, have an intrinsic genetic relationship with the complex of the mountain systems, which diverge out of the Pamir knot in different directions. The Pamirs, along with Hindkush, Karakoram, the Sarikol-Muztagh and the Pamir-Alay Tien-Shah ranges form the water parting between the two inland systems of drainage, one ending in the Aral Sea and the other in the inland lagoons of Lop Nor.
2. Among the
mountain systems that splay out from the Pamir vortex are the Hindukush,
Muztag, Karakoram, Ladakh and the Great Himalayan ranges in the South,
South-East and South-West; Pamir-Alay and Tien-Shah in the North-East; and the
Kunlun and Aghil ranges in the East and South-East. The region could be further
sub divided into the following macro physical divisions :-
(a) Trans Himalayas
(b) Greater Himalayas
(c) Lesser Himalayas
(d) Sub Himalayas
Trans Himalayas
3. Across the Northern boundary of Kashmir there stretches a belt of plateaus flanked by high ranges. The centre of this system seems to be the Pamirs, which are a series of lofty and broad valleys separated and bounded by snow-clad mountains. Besides the great Karakoram, other important offshoots are the Kunlun and Aghil Range. Many of the Karakoram glaciers have fast flowing surface streams, for example, the Siachen, which feeds the Nubra River. Some of the highest peaks in the Himalayas like K2 (8,035m), Hidden Peak (8,069m), Broad Peak (8,047m), Gasher-Brum II (8,035m). Rakaposhi (7,788m) and Harmosh (7,397) rise abruptly in the western Karakoram. This region could be further sub-divided into the following mountain ranges :-
(a) Pamirs. The vortex of the system, all major mountain
ranges seem to have their existence from this knot. Extending westwards it acts
as a formidable barrier from the western disturbances emanating from
Afghanistan.
(b) Kunlun
Range. Emanating out of the
Pamir Knot, it acts as a natural northern barrier. Extending West to East, its
major portion is in Chinese territory consisting of lofty chain of mountains
with average heights varying from 5000m to 7000m.
(c) Aghil
Range. Located in between the Kunlun and the
Karakoram ranges this mountain system extends Northwest to Southeast and almost
parallel to both the ranges. A formidable feature with high mountain peaks, it
acts as a major obstacle for any North South movement.
(d) Karakoram
Range. The greatest range of
mountains in the world, Karakoram ranges (which means black gravel) lies tucked
behind the north-west end of the mighty Himalayas. It is shielded by the
extensive mountain barrier-the Hindukush/Hinduraj and the Pamirs in the west,
Kunlun Shah Range in the North and the high Tibetian Plateau in the East. This
400 kilometers long and 190 kilometers wide range, from Shyok to Hunza forms
the greatest barrier on earth to the migration of people and has remained the
world’s greatest natural obstacle. Here lies the greatest concentration of
giant peaks on the globe, 33 of them over 7300m including K2 (8611m), the
second highest mountain in the world, and probably the most difficult and dangerous
of them all. The Karakoram Range forms the outer boundary of the upper Indus
Valley and can only be crossed over very difficult high passes. The Karakoram Pass crosses the range and is
on the road from Leh to Tibet. This pass is over 5485m high and 6 kilometers
wide. This range is very barren, but herds of sheep and goats are reared on the
poor pastures. The snowfields of Karakoram give rise to great Glaciers, which
form the source of mighty rivers. These rivers in their upper courses are wild
torrents flowing at the bottom of deep, rocky gorges. They are normally not
navigable, but are some times crossed by locals on primitive rafts supported by
inflated goatskins.
(e) Hindukush
Range. Lying to the west of
Karakoram, the Hindukush ranges, run parallel from North-East, descending
South-West to merge with the desert of Afghanistan. Hindukush forms the
boundary between North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) of Pakistan and
Afghanistan. Hindukush (killer of Hindus) separated the ancient Indian Kingdoms
from
9
Afghanistan.
Hinduraj range is parallel and lies south east of Hindukush. River Indus
separates it from the Himalayan range. Its important passes are Boroghi
(3806m), Darkot (4587m), Irshad (4928m), Tui (4410m), Shandur (3737m), Khora
Buri (4633m), Lawarai (3120m) and Badwai (3350m). Its North Western slopes feed
the Tributaries of Oxus River while in North West Frontier Province the rivers
are Yasin Ghizar, Ishkuman, Gilgit, Kunar, Mustaj, Kandia, Tangir, Darel, Swat
and Kabul.
Greater Himalayas.
4. Rising steeply from the forests of
India and Nepal, the Himalayas spill quickly, but more gently, down to the arid
and high plateau of Tibet. The great
Himalayas begin with Nanga Parbat (8125m) in the angular turn of Indus river.
To the north it is flanked by the Zanskar Range, overlooking the Indus and by
the dissected plains of Rupshi and Deosai, to the South by the series of more
or less continuous ranges of lesser Himalayas. Nanga Parbat, the mighty north
western pillar is separated from the mountain range by the valleys of Kishan
Ganga and Astor, between which lies the Burzil Pass and, to the North and East
it is mooted by the deep gash of the
Indus gorges. Round this massif the Indus flows in gorges 4500-5000m
deep. Jhelum River and the Kashmir Valley separate it from Pir Panjal Range.
The Himalayas here are approximately 80-km wide with steep divides and
precipitous slopes. The average height of this mostly forested range is 1200m.
Rivers draining its northern slopes are tributaries of Indus river namely Astor
and Shyok, while the southern slopes feed rivers Kunhar,Kishanganga, Shingo and
Shigar. Important passes on the ranges are Babusar Pass (4175m), Shonthar Gali
(4567m), Ratti Gali (4175m), Shikar Gali (4474m), Kumri Bai (4077m), Burzil Bai
(4201m) and Chachor (4270m). Between Karakoram and Zanskar there are numerous
high mountains less formidable than those mentioned and these leave the way
more open to the East than elsewhere, but from all directions Ladakh remains an
isolated region. The region is entirely tree less, the grass is scanty but
provides sufficient pasturage for number of wild yaks, and sheep. The altitude
is too great to allow grain to ripen. The mountains that surround the arid
table-land of Ladakh are as high as 5182metres to 8000 metres. The salty lakes that abound in the area and
around indicate, according to geologists that Ladakh at some comparatively recent period was a
relatively fertile land. Roads exist even at heights of about 3375m and the one
through Kargil at a distance of
about 240 km from Srinagar, has always been
widely
traversed. Kargil today, is dotted with gardens and greeneries because of
comparatively less snow-fall and a warm
summer where apples, grapes and apricots etc abound. The major mountain ranges
in this system are :-
(a) Ladakh
Range. This range, between the
two
Indus gaps, is a part of the Himalayas and forms its northern end alongwith Zanskar range. Ladakh Range runs south-east starting from the confluence of the Indus River and its tributary, the Shyok River. The average crest height of the range is approximately 5800m. Its northern slopes are gentler compared to the steep southern slopes. The vegetation is found only at lower altitudes. Gansel is an important pass, which remains open from Aug to Oct only. Further south, the Ladakh range separates the Indus valley and the Leh district from the Shyok valley and the Ladakh plateau. The high Khardungla and Chang La passes form the main routes of ingress into the Indus valley, and to Leh, across the Ladakh Range. The Zanskar range further south, running almost parallel to the Greater Himalayan range, separates the Indus and the Suru valleys. Ladakh’s climate is extremely cold and dry. Rain falls in the form of snow. Though the mountain peaks around are perpetually snow-covered even in summer, the table-land of Ladakh burns under the sun during the day. Since the temperature is too low to permit the growth of vegetation for six months in the year, farming is possible only for one season when the people raise their staple crops consisting of wheat, barley, grain, buckwheat and peas. The winters are too cold to allow any outdoor activities, so the rest of the year is utilized in indoor activities like weaving. Cultivation forms 78 percent of Ladakh’s working population. Around 3 percent are landless labourers who work for wages. Much of the region has neither waterways nor roads, and though in places the mountain paths are well built, with stone steps, in others they are very difficult for travelling. The people have always been somewhat different from the rest of the Kashmiris, and there are great local variation in dialects. Though there are some good surfaced roads, the district is cut off in winter on account of heavy snowfall at the Zoji La, which provides access to it from Srinagar. Barter is still prevalent there. Mule and Yak caravans are the only means of transportation. Kargil and Leh are the trading centres. Polyandry is still prevalent.
Indus gaps, is a part of the Himalayas and forms its northern end alongwith Zanskar range. Ladakh Range runs south-east starting from the confluence of the Indus River and its tributary, the Shyok River. The average crest height of the range is approximately 5800m. Its northern slopes are gentler compared to the steep southern slopes. The vegetation is found only at lower altitudes. Gansel is an important pass, which remains open from Aug to Oct only. Further south, the Ladakh range separates the Indus valley and the Leh district from the Shyok valley and the Ladakh plateau. The high Khardungla and Chang La passes form the main routes of ingress into the Indus valley, and to Leh, across the Ladakh Range. The Zanskar range further south, running almost parallel to the Greater Himalayan range, separates the Indus and the Suru valleys. Ladakh’s climate is extremely cold and dry. Rain falls in the form of snow. Though the mountain peaks around are perpetually snow-covered even in summer, the table-land of Ladakh burns under the sun during the day. Since the temperature is too low to permit the growth of vegetation for six months in the year, farming is possible only for one season when the people raise their staple crops consisting of wheat, barley, grain, buckwheat and peas. The winters are too cold to allow any outdoor activities, so the rest of the year is utilized in indoor activities like weaving. Cultivation forms 78 percent of Ladakh’s working population. Around 3 percent are landless labourers who work for wages. Much of the region has neither waterways nor roads, and though in places the mountain paths are well built, with stone steps, in others they are very difficult for travelling. The people have always been somewhat different from the rest of the Kashmiris, and there are great local variation in dialects. Though there are some good surfaced roads, the district is cut off in winter on account of heavy snowfall at the Zoji La, which provides access to it from Srinagar. Barter is still prevalent there. Mule and Yak caravans are the only means of transportation. Kargil and Leh are the trading centres. Polyandry is still prevalent.
(b) Deosai
Mountains. It is
bounded by Rosha mountains in the
East and the
Himalayas
in the Southwest, covering approx 6500 sq km. The average elevation is 3960m.
The whole area was under ice till a few
hundred years ago.
It remains under snow from
November
till July. Vegetation is restricted to small plants, which thrives for 4 months
in a year. Habitation is scarce and far spread along streams at lower altitudes
on the periphery. Population is generally nomadic. It is known as “The Devil’s
Place” as per the local superstitions.
(c) Zanskar
Range. Starting from the
Deosai Plains in Baltistan, it runs
parallel to and South of the Ladakh range separated from it by Indus River. It
is a plateau like range with peaks rising upto 5950m.
Lesser Himalayas
5. This mountain system covers the
foothills of the Ladakh range upto the Pir Panjal Range. The average heights
vary from 1000-5000m from Peshawar to Potwar Plateau and Doda in the South. The
valleys are generally broad with undulating landscape, thickly wooden mountain
slopes and ridges in the South and high and snow capped peaks towards the
North.
6. Pir Panjal Range forms part of the
Lesser Himalayas alongwith the Shiwaliks, lying South of it. This prominent
range starts roughly in the region of the confluence of the Kishanganga and
Jhelum rivers and runs in the South East direction. It covers the Kashmir
Valley from South and West. It is structurally and lithologically more complex.
The massive perino Carboniferous limestones, metamorphic and intrusive, have formed
this range with average serrated crest heights of 4000m with the highest peaks
reaching 4725m. Its crests abound in rugged peaks, crevassed slopes with
glacier
basins and wide valleys. Between the valley-heads lie long levelled divides
indicative of a very mature and old landform. This green well-forested and
populated range gets the major blast of the monsoons from the West and
NorthWest. There are about thirty small glaciers taking off from this range.
The Southern flank is wetter than the Northern, but slopes here are too steep
for soil formation. The larger coniferous forests are mostly to the North.
Important passes are Hajipir (2639m), Jarni Gali (3656m), Nurpur Gali (4096m), Naba Pir (4253m), Pir Panjal (349m),
Bud Pir (4264m), Didam Gali (3804m), Kukut Gali (3804m) and Banihal, (2832m).
Most of these remain passable for a few months during summer.
Sub Himalayas
7. Sub or Outer Himalayas of the Jammu
Division consist of forested or furrowed hills with structured depressions or
‘Duns’. This region is crisscrossed by
various fast flowing streams in the
south. Main physical divisions of this region are :-
(a) Hills
South of Pir Panjal Range. Hills
on the Southern slopes of the Pir Panjal have forest covered hills with narrow
river valleys. This area is prone to seasonal snowfall and landslides. A low
outer ring of hills lies between the plains and the mountains further South.
The districts of Udhampur and Rajouri comprise this region.
(b) The
Karewas. The Karewas are belts
of uplands, which have been formed due to lacustrine deposits. The sloping
Karewas extend from Shopian to Sopore, all along the foothills of Pir Panjal
and the Himalayan ranges. Some of the Karewas areas are markedly flat topped,
dreary in appearance and parched as compared to the sloping Karewas. Water
table is very low, hence only dry farming is possible in this region.
Horticulture is the dominant activity of this region. The important fruits
cultivated are walnuts, apples, plums and cherries. Handicraft activities are a
major support during winter.
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