PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS-UN

For those who wanted something on peacekeeping operations,here is a brief on Cambodia !

Introduction

1. The French converted Cambodia into their protectorate , however , retaining her monarchy. On the verge of defeat in World War II , Japan removed their French collaborators and installed a nominally indepenent Khmer Government under young Norodom Sinhanuk . Although France reestablished contol after World war II , it was only in 1953 that Cambodia gained full independence .

2. Sinhanuk was courted by USA , USSR and China seeking respective influence in the region . Sinhanuk did walk on a neutralist tight rope upto 1968 , but thereafter , the country got involved in one of the worst wars world has ever known with untold and unprecedented miseries to mankind . Consequently , Pol Pot’s dreaded regime was replaced by Heng Samrins’s with Hun Sen as the Prime Minister .

3. Vietnamese troops were pulled out by September 1989 leaving Hun Sen’s regime in a precarious condition . In October 1991 , the warring parties signed the historic Paris Agreement . Sinhanuk returned to Cambodia and was named President .

United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC )

4. Background and Political Angle. Paris agreements were culmination of more than a decade of negotiations . UN was closely involved in these . Vide Resolution No 718 of 31 October 1991 , Supreme National Council (SNC ) was recognised as the unique legitimate authority . Sovereignty , independence and unity of Cambodia was enshrined therein under the Chairmanship of Prince Norodom Sihanuk . FUNCINPEK , KPNLF , PDK and SOC were the principal signatories . SNC delegated all powers to UN to ensure implementation of agreements .

5. UNTAC . With its Headquarters at Phnom Penh , the UNTAC had an authorised strength of 22,000 military and civil personnel . Duration was from March 1992 to 24 Septembner 1993 . The Head of Mission was Yasushi Akashi of Japan . LTG John M. Sanderson of Australia was nomonated as the Force Commander . A record of 47 countries participated and the total fatalities were 78 .

6. MANDATE. UNTAC had the following mandate :-

(a) Human Rights .

(b) Free and fair elections .

(c) Military Arrangements.

(d) Civil Administration

(e) Law and Order.

(f) Repatriation / Resettlement of Cambodian Refugees / displaced personnel .

(g) Rehabilitation of Essential Cambodian Infrastructure .

7. The multidimensional mandate was to have been completed within a period of 18 months , ie , within the transitional period prior to establishment of UNTAC . Security Council decided to establish United Nations Advance Mission in Cambodia ( UNAMIC ) with it’s Headquarters at Phnom Penh . It lasted from November 1991 upto March 1992 .It comprised of a total of 1504 military and civil personnel . The primary aims of UNAMIC were to assist four Cambodian Parties in maintaining cease fire prior to deployment of UNTAC , initiate mine awareness training and educate Cambodian people in mine detection and mine clearance techniques .In March 1992 , UNAMIC was absorbed by UNTAC.

8. Components. UNTAC had seven distinct components , viz , Human Rights , Electoral , Military , Civil Administration , Civil Police , Repatriation and Rehabilitation . To successfully achieve these , the Security Elements had designed to establish check points with Cambodian Borders with Thailand , Vietnam and Laos in Phase I from 15 march 1992 to 12 June 1992 . This was to follow by Phase 2 from 13 June 1992 upto September 1992 affecting cantonment , disarming and demobilising the armies and factions . Closely then was to follow in Phase 3 thereafter the most important action of conducting free and fair elections . Rehabilitation and reconstruction of Cambodia was a concurrent action.

9 Mission Accomplishments. Right from the very start PDK stopped cooperating so much so that they finally abstained from the elections . This grave situation was , however , dealt with very astutely by the UN leadership and PDK was given ample opportunities to return to negotiating table but to no avail . There were a number of cease fire violations resulting in fatalities to UN Peacekeepers and civil population . This notwithstanding , the election process continued . Cantonment , demobilisation and disarming of PDK was suspended . On the whole 55,000 troops were cantoned but later this phase was suspended totally . All components described above did an excellent job within a short period of 18 months . It was an extremely ambitious goal set .The Electoral Component was able to register 4.7 million voters . 4.2 million voters excercised their free franchise in the presence of international community with an over all 90 % turnout . Another highlight was the successful return of 365,000 refugees / displaced personnel . The total expenditure of UNAMIC and UNTAC was a whopping $ 1524 Million . The Rule of Engagement were practical and feasible . Emphasis was on use of total force for crimes against humanity . To retain flexibility , use of force was delegated at appropriate levels . In so far as applicability of Urquhart Critaria is cocerned , UNTAC fits it in all respects except the fact that the mandate was too ambitious .

Critical appraisal

10. UNTAC was a total success because Paris accords were built upon foundations of post cold war international harmony . Also stage was set for UN for political transition to a new Cambodian Government .Cambodia saw a true prospect of hope and return to normalcy after years of struggle. Also the interim authority of Sihanouk was generally agreed to by the parties . The UNTAC’s leadership always kept in mind their vision to succeed focussing on their aim and need for momemtum uppermost . This notwithstanding PDK’s absence from the election scene was a negative aspect of UNTAC . Also in some cases , UNTAC failed to establish effective control over defence , public security , finance , information and foreign affairs - possibly they had too much to chew in 18 months !

11 . Lessons . Some important lessons that come out are :-

(a) Mandate must be practical , pragmatic and feasible .

(b) Tardy deployment may undermine the aims of mission right from the start

(c) Establishment of a neutral political environment is a must .

(d) Civil and Military senior staff must be designated immediately .

(e) UN and member states must provide best professional / technical staff.

(f) For success of a mission there is a need for maintenance of aim , dynamic leadership , patient diplomacy and momemtum always and every time .

(g) Appropriate levels of external support must always exist .

Conclusion

12 . UNTAC was a high point in second generation and multi dimensional peace keeping . Large size and diverse functions were true reflections of a negotiated peace settlement seeking to deal with the conflict in military , social and political dimensions .The electoral work , information , repatriation and educational programmes were well conducted and well received by the people .UNTAC being ambitious notwithstanding was a RESOUNDING SUCCESS .

Gen DOUGLAS Mac ARTHUR-MY VISIT TO WEST POINT

Someone asked me the other day about Gen Douglas Mac Arthur. I have nostalgic memories of my stay at the Theyer's on Hudson River.West Point Academy was next door.A majestic sight & an alma mater of US Army Officers.'Doughy' as his mother called him, remains as my icon & role model. A great captain of war! This is a tribute to him-the Immortal Mortal.

GENERAL DOUGLAS Mac ARTHUR

“A PROFILE IN STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP”

“Supreme amongst the Generals.His combination of strong personality

strategic grasp,tactical skill,operative mobility and vision,put him in

a class above allied commanders in any theatre”

-Sir Basil Liddel Hart

“Unquestionably.....the most gifted man-at arms this nation has produced”

-William Manchester

Introduction.

1. A legend in his life time,General MacArthur brought for over five decades,unmatched credentials of courage , dynamic personality,superior leadership and an extraordinary sense of strategic vision. Since the turn of the century, repeated criticisms of his scholastic and strategic leadership and vision have been withstood by his excellent miltary records and outstanding achievements.From his West Point days until he finally left the shores of Japan , MacArthur`s name had become synonymous as the architect of American victory in the Pacific,ruler of the Land of the Rising Sun and as an epic tactician of the Korean War.

Aim

2. Aim of this paper is to briefly highlight the personality traits of Douglas MacArthur from the military aspect with special reference to his insights of strategic vision and leadership.

Lay Out

3. At the outset it is brought out that this paper is focussed primarily on MacArthur`s military leadership profile when viewed from a strategic aspect .Therefore, it does not, include any controversy that may have surrounded him from time to time.This paper is laid out as follows:-

(a) Early Life.

(b) West Point to World Wars.

(c) Tenure as Chief of Staff.

(d) Return to Phillipines..

(e). Surrender of Japan , Korea and thereafter.

(f) Critical Appraisal.

PART-1 EARLY LIFE

4. MacArthur was born on 26 January 1880 in perfect Army surroundings in Little Rock, Arkansas in a family well steeped in military traditions.A son of an ideal father- -a General and a over possessive mother , MacArthur showed signs of exceptional brilliance and streaks of strategic vision even at a young age.At a young age of four he was baptised under fire by marauding Indians and this early beginning saw him carving his illustrious destiny to bridge the eternity of arms ranging from a primitive arrow to the conflagration of a nuclear bomb.

PART-II WEST POINT TO WORLD WARS

West Point

5. Young MacArthur created records at the West Point and during his entire stay of four years,his mother stayed in a hotel on the campus-another record ! He graduated first in his class and was the first West Point ballplayer to have scored a run against Navy.He was commissioned in Army Corps of Engineers and was posted to Phillipines in 1903.

Early Successes

6. Second Lieutenant MacArthur tasted blood when he volunteered to go on a patrol to mop up a band of brigands called ‘pulajanes’ and it was here when he more or less got enamoured with the queen of the battlefield-the Infantry . In the Yalu River Battle in 1905,young MacArthur saw the Japanese from very close quarters and carried on to witness the height of the massive battle of Mukden.

7. During World War I ,MacArthur was decorated 13 times for extreme bravery under fire . He was wounded twice and gassed . As a Brigadier General at the age of 38 , he was the youngest general of the American Expeditionary Force .As a military leader,he ensured that he would not ask a man to take a chance that he himself was not ready and willing to accept . During both World Wars he served both as a Brigade and Divisional Commander and established a strong reputation for indomitable courage and astute leadership . Between the World wars he was chosen to rejuvinate West Point in 1919 as it’s Superintendent . He did a remarkable job there and his innovative and enlightened approach in re-erecting the edifice from shambles was indeed laudable.

8. A second tenure in Philippines, followed by a tenure as President of the US Olympics Team saw MacArthur in his best skills in leadership and motivation coupled with strategic organizational capabilities.

PART III MacARTHUR AS CHIEF OF STAFF

9. At age 50 , MacArthur was the youngest Chief of Staff in the US Army`s history.His tenure coincided with the Depression period and was marked by conflict over appropriations for the Army.His strategic vision and intuition had told him that there was going to be another major war , that America would be involved in a big way and that the war would be fought by maneouvre and in the sky . MacArthur `s tenure was marked by some of the sorriest scenes of his life when he was tasked to clear out Bonus Army out of Washington.He retired on 15 December 1935.

PART IV RETURN TO PHILLIPINES

10. A strong appeal from President Manuel Quizon , of the Phillipines Commonwealth , to President Roosevelt brought MacArthur back to his playing ground in Phillipines on active duty . Another glimpse of his strategic vision was amply clear when he spoke at West Point prior to his departure,”Let us be prepared,lest we too perish”.

11. MacArthur`s strategic leadership and vision led to making the Phillipines a militarily strong bastion and he was able to make three distinct services .He proposed to train 40,000 Filipino youths every year and also set up a miniature West Point for officers training . MacArthur ,lack of funds from Quezon notwithstanding,was able to put together a proper fighting force as the planet whirled towards World War II.

12. On 26 July,1941,MacArthur was reverted back to active duty with the US Army as a Lieutenent General in command of all American Forces in the Far East ; the Phillipines Army also came under his command .Now began moving the magic wand of MacArthur in uncovering his master strategic strokes , one after another . In his revised plans for the defence of the Archipelago , Macarthur displayed extraordinary strategic thought .It was accepted by Washington straightway.

13. Attack on Pearl Harbour and the delayed commencement of battle for Phillipines led MacArthur`s overall plans awry . However, he was able to withdraw most brilliantly . It was indeed a low point of war . His return to Australia in 1942 made him only more determined to come back to the centre stage of battlefield in the Pacific and his words became famous overnight “ I shall return”.

14. The fall of Buna and Sanananda , towards the end of January 1943 saw the end of the Papuan Campaign and the end of Japanese offensive towards Moresby . MacArthur exploited the Air Force fully and began a strategic concept`s translation in to reality when long term and short term interdiction and air support to ground troops was given in its right earnest . Also , he used Air Force very effectively over Naval Forces in the defeat of Japanese Navy at Coral Sea and Midway . A rapid airlift of an infantry battalion thwarted Japanese attempts to control the famous Bulolo Valley.

15. The “Triphibious and Bypass Strategies” propagated by MacArthur did come for much criticism . However, these became the basic stragegies for MacArthur`s drive from Papua to the Phillipines . He was able to achieve tremendous strategic surprise . He saw opportunities when others saw difficulties and problems . He took calculated risks and virtually gambled on the element of strategic surprise.The Japanese committed their resources piecemeal and he hastened the victory while reducing the number of dead and wounded . MacArthur was able to sweep the enemy and redeem the promises of his countrymen . August 1945 saw the dropping of the atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the end of war with Japan.

PART V SURRENDER OF JAPAN AND THEREAFTER

16. MacArthur , as part of his strategic vision , had proposed to the `powers that be` that Russia should declare war on Japan so that adequate pressure could be exerted from the North.Within hours of dropping of the atomic bomb at Hiroshima,Russia jumped in the fray ! Japan`s unconditional surrender was announced on 15 Aug 1945 and MacArthur was named as the Supreme commander of the Allied Powers . In the final tally , MacArthur`s troops had suffered only 60,000 while the enemy casualties were estimated to approximately 300,000 plus . How characteristically,MacArthur remarked ”From Melbourne to Tokyo was a long road.It was a long,hard road,but this looks like the payoff”.

17. In his Herculian bid to democratise Japan he set his course full steam and started the economic reconstruction of the country . He broke up the trusts , smashed secret police services , freed political prisioners , jailed war criminals , emancipated women , protected and helped develop labour unions and established free speech and a free press.

18. The Republic of Korea was attacked by North Koreans across the 38th parallel on 25 June 1950 and MacArthur was directed by the President of United States to resist the aggression with US Forces in behalf of the United Nations.In the most outstanding of the strategic maneouvres the world has known , MacArthur staggered the North Koreans with the UN landings at Inchon on 15 september 1950 , followed by capture of Seoul - the capital city.This was a masterpiece of his strategic strokes and it broke the back of the North Koreans,the war was decisively won!

19. MacArthur returned to the United States after a gap of almost 14 years to fade away -so he said.He was ordered to handover the commands to Lt Gen Ridgeway . MacArthur had finally turned a civilian on 17 April 1951.

PART VI CRITICAL APPRAISAL

20. MacArthur was indeed a General of exceptional military brilliance and a man of great intellectual ability.No doubt his concepts on warfare and stategies were well ahead of his time.He was a geat proponent of mechanised warfare and a great advocate of extensive use of Air Power in support of the Land forces.His handling of command in the Pacific was beyond description .It displayed his great vision,strategic handling of war and above all the master implementaion of strategic surprise .He indeed was a military genius .

Korea was to be the Pyrrhic victory of his great military career with Inchon Landings as a master stroke out of this world!

Conclusion

21. The long military career of Douglas MacArthur and his dynamic strategic leadership qualities are stamped indelibly on the history of the Pacific for some centuries to come.His inherited qualities of leadership and strategic vision . He grew up to be a great innovator and having powers of tremendous vision and an extra-ordinary sense of intuition . MacArthur was a legend and shall remain so in the centuries to come.

At the start of World War II , in a sea of uncertainty , he became a symbol of victory and remained so till the end of his military career . His articulations of strategic concepts that would guide future conflicts were much ahead of times thus placing him as a man of great intellectual ability.This coupled with his theories on war and his conceptual views on art of modern warfare and strategic surprise made him a great captain of war. Unquestionably,therefore,MacArthur was the most gifted man-at-arms United States had ever produced.

..

“The shadows are lengthening for me.The twilight is here.My days of old

have vanished -tone and tints.....I listen then,with thirsty ears for the witching

melody of faint bugles blowing e reveille,of far drums beating the long roll.

“In my dreams I hear again the crash of guns,the rattle of musketry,the strange

mournful mutter of the battlefield.But in the evening of my memory I come back

to West Point.Always there echoes and reechoes:duty,honor,country.............”

, -General MacArthur speaking at the US Military Academy,1962